Jesus and the Language of Judgment, Part 1
Jesus and the Language of Judgment, Part 1
General Gospel Teachings
(avg. read time: 10–19 mins.)
Whether in historical Jesus studies or otherwise, scholars have had difficulty in constructing portraits of Jesus that convey all his complexity on display in the Gospels. Indeed, many studies of the historical Jesus have sought to simplify this portrait by assigning this or that episode or teaching to the invention of the earliest Christians instead of to the life of Jesus. But to be fair to those scholars of historical Jesus studies, they are but one example of a broader historical tendency to simplify Jesus. One other example, which is what I aim to address today, is in how various people handle Jesus’s language of judgment. On the one hand, some people largely ignore it, as it is difficult to imagine the Jesus they like speaking so much condemnation and warnings of judgment, unless they are against targets they also happen to be against (whom they will label Pharisees whether that is apropos or not). On the other hand, some people will insist upon the old canard that Jesus spoke more about hell than he did heaven, which distorts not only the eschatological picture Jesus was operating with (in fact, he never speaks of “heaven” in the terms of a blissful afterlife for the soul denuded of the body that is often imagined with using that term), but also obfuscates the fact that it is the kingdom of God/heaven that is central to Jesus’s message and the judgment language is an extension of the same.
I aim to clarify the functions of Jesus’s language of judgment in his teachings by a comprehensive survey of the Gospels. The scope of analysis will cover both the explicit language of judgment and the aspects of Jesus’s speech that we can draw more implicit connections of being informed by the expectation of judgment. This series will thus proceed in five parts. The first part will focus on teachings in multiple Gospels, while the other parts will focus on each individual Gospel. One could, of course, also add the words of Jesus in Revelation as relevant to this subject, but I will only be focusing on his words during his time on earth, as these are what the claims about Jesus tend to focus on. I should also note that I am focusing on what Jesus says, not on what other people in the Gospels (particularly John the Baptist) say. This series will be organized like notes, as I am proceeding in order of contents, rather than in a more topically oriented fashion that would otherwise make for a smoother exposition.
General Gospel Teachings
It is important to note from the outset how the judgment language and teaching of Jesus is an extension of his message about the kingdom of God/heaven. Both Matthew and Mark frame Jesus’s message when he begins his ministry as a call to repentance because the kingdom has drawn near (Matt 4:17 // Mark 1:15). This call implies that one of the consequences of the coming of the kingdom is judgment, hence the need to repent and, by doing so, declare allegiance to God and his kingdom. The same implication is attached to Jesus’s exorcisms (Matt 12:27–28 // Luke 11:19–20), for the coming of the kingdom of God entails judgment and calls for proper response, which Jesus’s opponents have failed to embody.
The prospect of judgment is also invoked in the various calls Jesus makes for cutting off the sources of temptation that can cause one to be thrown into Gehenna/hell (Matt 5:29–30; 18:8–9; Mark 9:43–48). The dramatic language goes so far as to speak of cutting off body parts, so that one may enter the kingdom maimed rather than be thrown whole into hell. These are figures of speeches with internally coherent imagery, rather than stated expectations about what the resurrection will (and will not) involve, given what we see elsewhere. And, indeed, the suggestion is not that cutting off body parts will actually remove temptation. But the language does reflect the seriousness of consequences of surrendering to temptation, and thus the lengths to which one must go to avoid that which causes one to sin. Similarly, Jesus says it is better to have a great millstone hung around one’s neck and be thrown into the sea than to cause one of the little ones who believe in him to sin precisely because of the severity of judgment associated with sin and those who tempt others to sin (Matt 18:6–7 // Mark 9:42 // Luke 17:1–2).
It should also be noted already that we see these statements addressed to a variety of crowds. The opening call to repentance is to anyone and everyone who hear Jesus, the statement about his exorcism is addressed to his opponents, the teaching from Matt 5 is part of Jesus’s Sermon on the Mount, and the other teachings are addressed to his disciples. The possibility of judgment was not a warning he issued to some and not others, but an essential aspect of his message that he directed in multitudinous ways to various groups as he declared his message, taught, or responded.
One reason why judgment was so central to his message was because it was also intertwined with the promise and directive of forgiveness. Forgiveness and the larger reality of reconciliation with which it is associated are inherently tied to judgment, for those who are reconciled are vindicated rather than condemned. We will see later many other cases in which forgiveness—as it is linked to judgment—is key to Jesus’s ministry, but one demonstration is the fact that Jesus was not satisfied with healing the paralytic, but told him as well that his sins were forgiven (Matt 9:1–8 // Mark 2:1–12 // Luke 5:17–26). Conversely, those who blasphemed the Holy Spirit by attributing to Satan/Beelzebul what the Holy Spirit had been doing in Jesus’s ministry will receive no forgiveness (Matt 12:31–32 // Mark 3:28–30 // Luke 12:10), meaning that they will be subject to condemnation in the coming judgment. But forgiveness received should also be forgiveness reflected, as the moon reflects the light it receives. Otherwise, the petition for forgiveness enshrined in the Lord’s Prayer will ultimately be denied, since it is linked with showing forgiveness to others (Matt 6:12 // Luke 11:4; Matt 6:14–15; cf. Matt 18:21–22; Luke 17:3–4). Related to the prospect of judgment is Jesus’s warning about judging hypocritically, for one shall be judged and measured in accordance with how one has judged and measured (Matt 7:1–2 // Luke 6:37–38 [cf. Mark 4:24]; Matt 7:3–5 // Luke 6:41–42). In Jesus’s teaching, just as the awareness of forgiveness should shape one’s own capacity for forgiveness, so too should the awareness of the coming judgment shape how one judges the actions of others in the present time.
Jesus’s own use of the famous “two ways” imagery implicitly relies on the expectation of judgment. He says the gate is wide and the way is broad that leads to the destruction, that is, the negative outcome of judgment. Conversely, the gate is narrow and the way is hard that leads to life, that is, the positive outcome of judgment (Matt 7:13–14 // Luke 13:23–30).
Generally, the outcomes of judgment are given only the minimal description, but sometimes even the outcome is not mentioned, only the rendering of decision. We see this in Jesus’s warnings that not everyone who calls him Lord truly follows him as Lord by doing what he says, which is the will of his Father. There will even be some who say “on that day” (the day of judgment) that they did great things in the name of Jesus, but Jesus will simply say “I never knew you; depart from me, evildoers” (Matt 7:21–23 // Luke 13:25–27; cf. Luke 6:46).
Given this context, one should also read the subsequent imagery of the people who build their houses on different foundations in light of this coming judgment (Matt 7:24–27 // Luke 6:47–49). Here, judgment is portrayed in terms of testing, wherein the quality of works depends on the quality of the foundation (not, in this case, on the quality of materials for the house). This imagery of judgment as testing also appears in texts like 1 Cor 3. But unlike 1 Cor 3, the concern here is about the foundation and so it has a broader scope of judgment that includes followers of Christ and people in general (even if the image is focused more specifically on those who hear and do not do).
Even as judgment is sometimes described in terms of being thrown into hell, with the implied fiery imagery of Gehenna (where garbage would be burned), other times it is described as being thrown outside or out into the darkness (Matt 8:11–12; 22:13; 25:30). That is, judgment as expressed in condemnation involves being put outside the domain of the kingdom of God. This condition of being “outside” is also described in terms of weeping and gnashing of teeth (Matt 8:11–12 // Luke 13:28–29; 24:51). Of course, this latter image is also used with the imagery of being thrown in the fire in Matt 13:42 and 50. The latter two texts also provide the most general application of this imagery, while the others that focus on the language of being “outside” and in “darkness,” are directed at those who would otherwise expect that they would be in the kingdom but find themselves on the outside on the day of the eschaton. This is especially made clear in the language in Matthew of the “sons of the kingdom” in Matt 8:12 being thrown out. As such, while this may be a more generally applicable image of judgment, it is especially poignant in contexts of violation of expectations, where those who expected to be “in” are actually “out.”
Related to this is Jesus’s statement in all the Synoptic Gospels that he came not to call the righteous, but to call sinners (Matt 9:12–13 // Mark 2:17 // Luke 5:31–32). Luke’s version accentuates this point by including “to repentance” in the quote. But all of them commonly use the image of the physician and who needs the physician’s treatment. This call is motivated by the coming judgment and the consequence of condemnation if sinners are not called and treated by union with Christ, the Great Physician.
Of course, on the other side of this call, it matters how one receives Jesus, as well as those who proclaim Jesus’s message in continuity with him. This is a point Jesus makes in sending out his disciples, saying that there will be reward (i.e., reward at the final judgment) for those who properly respond to the message and messengers, while those who do not receive properly will be liable to judgment unto condemnation (Matt 10:13–15 // Luke 10:6, 10–12; Matt 10:40–42; Mark 6:11; 9:41; Luke 9:5; 10:16; cf. the notion of welcoming children in Jesus’s name in Matt 18:5 // Mark 9:37 // Luke 9:48). Likewise, Jesus explicitly refers to the final judgment in reference to those who have rejected him, saying that people of wicked cities will have a more bearable final judgment and that gentiles who saw the light would condemn this generation (Matt 11:20–24 // Luke 10:12–15; Matt 12:39–42 // Luke 11:29–32).
It is because of this coming final judgment that Jesus can warn that nothing is hidden that will not be revealed (Matt 10:26–33 // Luke 12:2–9; Mark 4:22 // Luke 8:17). Similarly, if anyone has hidden their testimony of Christ, being ashamed of him, or denied him, Christ will also deny that one before the Father, whereas those whose lives embody the gospel story will share in its resurrection outcome (Matt 16:24–27 // Mark 8:34–38 // Luke 9:23–26). The scope of the judgment is total and thus the response to it must be total as well in terms of living in the light and making the gospel story one’s own story. Indeed, the finality of consequence is supported by its totality, as the whole person will be thrown into hell to be destroyed (Matt 10:28 // Luke 12:5).
The totality of response required in the face of the coming judgment is also signified in what Jesus says about households. That is, his message, which he sends his disciples to go forth and proclaim, will cause division in households along the lines of how people respond to Jesus (Matt 10:34–36 // Luke 12:51–53), which in turn signifies the dividing lines at the final judgment that will run through households. Thus, Jesus emphasizes that those who love their family more than him are not worthy of him, so that they will be among those Jesus denies before his Father (Matt 10:37–39 // Luke 14:25–27; Luke 17:33).
Even the parables are linked to judgment, not only in terms of the content of the teaching, but in terms of their function. Both aspects are signified in Jesus’s parable of the soils, the interpretation he provides, and the use of Isa 6:9–10 whereby he explains why he speaks in parables (Matt 13:1–23 // Mark 4:1–20 // Luke 8:4–15). Like Jesus’s message in general, the parables produce different outcomes for different people, as those who would be willing followers of Jesus inquire more about the parables while those who are dismissive of his message either do not seek further or take offense at the parables.
Another piece of Jesus’s language that is informed by judgment is the notion of “entering the kingdom.” No one, not even the “sons of the kingdom” are automatically in it, as if by birthright. Rather, it is something that is entered at a given point in a given way, for example, by becoming like children (Matt 18:3 // Mark 10:15 // Luke 18:17; Matt 19:14 // Mark 10:14 // Luke 18:16). Conversely, he notes how difficult it is for the rich to enter the kingdom, implying that they too would be subject to condemnation in judgment. This story is incited by a rich man asking Jesus what he must do to inherit everlasting life, that is, the life of the kingdom. In other words, he is asking how he may be found “in the right” at the judgment, but what Jesus tells him is hard for him to bear. This response, in turn, leads Jesus to describe the difficulty of the rich entering the kingdom as being greater than that of getting a camel through the eye of a needle. But with God, all things are possible, and it is only by God that one gains entrance into the kingdom (Matt 19:16–30 // Mark 10:17–31 // Luke 18:18–30).
Interestingly, Matthew’s version of this story includes a promise that appears elsewhere related to eschatological judgment. That is, Jesus promises that the Twelve will sit on twelve thrones judging the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt 19:28 // Luke 22:28–30). How this fits within the larger eschatological schema and what it means will need to be explored another time. What is interesting to note for our purposes is, again, the significance of judgment in this eschatological context, as the most concrete eschatological promise Jesus makes to his disciples is that they will participate in eschatological judgment.
A more indirect case of judgment language that appears in all Synoptic Gospels is Jesus’s description of the temple being made to be a “den of bandits” (Matt 21:13 // Mark 11:17 // Luke 19:46). This phrase is taken from Jer 7:11, where it was likewise used as a condemnation against what the temple had become and thus providing a reason for its coming destruction. That function fits both with Jesus’s symbolic action in the temple and his prediction of destruction that leads into the Olivet Discourse in Matt 24, Mark 13, and Luke 21. Because of the complexity of the textual relationships between these versions of the discourse, I will be examining each chapter in their respective Gospel entries, rather than in this post.
All the Synoptic Gospels also relate Jesus’s parable of the wicked tenants (21:33–46 // Mark 12:1–12 // Luke 20:9–19). If the action in the temple had not been a clear enough indication of condemnation and coming judgment against Jerusalem, the parable makes this point clearer. After all, the tenants represent the Jewish leaders, and so the rightful (though not narrated) action to be taken against them in response to how they treat the Son represents the prospects of the Jewish leaders. Hence, as in earlier texts, those who presumed themselves to be “sons of the kingdom” are instead left outside of it as a consequence of the coming judgment. Of course, here, as in the case of the passion narrative in general, the judgment expectation is operating at two levels. Most immediately, it is portending events to come in the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple. More indirectly, in line with what we have seen to this point, this judgment itself also previews the final one with its ultimate consequences as something of an advance sign.
Related to these same ideas are the similar parable of the wedding banquet (Matt 22:1–14) and the parable of the great supper (Luke 14:15–24). Both of these parables signify the condemnation that comes with the rejection of the invitation of the gospel. Both stories feature others being invited and accepting the invitation, signifying their positive verdict at the judgment. Otherwise, they diverge rather significantly. The manner and consequence of rejection in the parable in Luke are simpler, as the rejections are only verbal, and the consequences are simply that those who were invited initially are excluded while those who were unexpected guests were welcomed in. But in Matthew the rejection is harsher and includes action in how the messengers of the king are treated shamefully and killed, thus the king responds with destroying those who treated his servants this way along with their city. The story is also further complicated by one who thought to sneak into the banquet who is then thrown outside into the outer darkness where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth. This latter parable in particular shows the two levels on which the judgment language in this part of the narrative functions. On the one hand, the treatment of the servants and the destruction of the city have rather obvious resonance on the historical level with what eventually happened to Jerusalem. On the other hand, this parable would have resonance for the consequences of any similar rejection on the eschatological level, and what happens to the guest who tried to sneak in is particularly reminiscent of imagery we have already seen associated with condemnation at the final judgment.
In this same overall context, Jesus also pronounces judgment against the scribes (Mark 12:37–40 // Luke 20:45–47). Against their purpose, they seek honor and riches, making shows of piety while enriching themselves even at the expense of widows (in his words “devouring” their houses). Thus, he says, they will receive “the greater condemnation,” a clear invocation of judgment. Again, this may be judgment language operating at two levels, given the context, referring both to the destruction of Jerusalem and its hierarchy, as well as to the overarching consequence at the final judgment.
Other elements of Jesus’s teaching, of which we will see more examples in future parts of this series, apply more specifically to the level of judgment within the course of history, rather than at the eschaton per se. The first is in reference to the consequences of the bloodshed from Abel to Zechariah that is said to come upon this generation (Matt 23:35–56 // Luke 11:50–51; on bloodguilt and avenging blood, cf. Deut 21:1–9; 32:43; 2 Sam 3:28–29; Ps 79:10). The second is in lament over the state of Jerusalem and how it kills the prophets sent there, and so the house of Jerusalem (especially the temple) is forsaken (cf. Jer 12:7) and will be left desolate, which portends the coming destruction as in the imagery of Jeremiah (Matt 23:37–39 // Luke 13:34–35; cf. Lev 26:31; Neh 2:3, 17; Isa 5:9; Jer 50:13; 51:26; Lam 5:18; Ezek 8:12; 9:9; Dan 9:17).
The parable of the talents in Matthew (25:14–30) and the parable of the minas in Luke (19:11–27) also present consequences of judgment. What distinguishes these stories is that they are directed at Jesus’s disciples and so the statements about the servants have as their target the disciples, rather than a more general audience, like many of the other teachings seen to this point. Thus, the warning of what can happen if the servant does not put to use what the master has left in his care is a warning directed to disciples, lest they should be lax and unfaithful, and thus find themselves excluded from the kingdom in the outer darkness. The parable in Luke further complexifies the judgment imagery in that it involves characters who are not part of the master’s house, specifically people who do not want this man to be king (19:14), who conclude the parable with being brought and slain before the king (19:27). As such, while the parable in Luke is also focused on the servants, and thus the disciples, in its warning, there is also in view a broader scope of judgment, which, given the context, may once again be a mix of referring to the coming judgment on Jerusalem itself and to the ultimate consequence of rejecting the king at the final judgment. As we will see later, Luke in particular draws attention to the coming judgment on the historical plane.
The final case to note that is shared among multiple Gospels is like the temple episode noted above in that it relies on allusion to the OT. In Jesus’s trial, all three Synoptic authors use a statement from Jesus describing himself/the Son of Man as sitting at the right hand of God, and, in Matthew and Mark, coming on the clouds of heaven (Matt 26:64 // Mark 14:62 // Luke 22:69). In the use of the Son of Man language—as well as the clouds imagery in Matthew and Mark—and in the reference to him sitting at God’s right hand, Jesus is making a combined allusion to Ps 110 (specifically, v. 1) and Dan 7 (specifically, vv. 13–14). Both texts describe God’s favor on the subject, and both appear in contexts of judgment being dispensed against the subject’s enemies. This connection is made all the more poignant by the context of Jesus’s trial, wherein his allusion to these texts—identifying himself as the subject in both cases—anticipates his vindication from the outcome of this trial and the condemnation being turned against his condemners at the final judgment. All of this will be made possible by his own resurrection and its defining relationship to the general resurrection at the final judgment. But these are things that will need to be explored another time.