Biblical and Theological Commentary on the Old English Exodus
(avg. read time: 7–14 mins.)
At the time of writing this, I am entering the homestretch of completing my work on the forthcoming book on The Lord of the Rings. The last commentary I would like to work on before that is completed is a book I had neglected to mention in my commentary on The Hobbit. Tolkien had actually composed a text and translation with commentary for an Old English poem of Exodus (it is out of print, but you can find it here). It is not a translation of Exodus itself. It is a dramatization of the central event (rather than the story as a whole) in the fashion of a heroic epic poem like Beowulf. As with that text (as well as my more similar commentary on Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Pearland The Battle of Maldon), we are not necessarily dealing with Tolkien’s theology as such, but the biblically and theologically informed characteristics of a text he worked on, as well as his similarly informed insights, are pertinent to this series.
It is also notable that another connection with Beowulf exists in that scholars of Tolkien’s own time often posited that there was some literary dependence of Exodus on Beowulf or vice versa. But Tolkien suggests, “these parallels show no more than that the heroic style preceded religious verse, which was an adaptation of a manner and a language devised originally rather for poems like Beowulf than for poems like those of MS Junius 11” (35). By his account, Beowulf is less of a source for Exodus than it is a prime example of the style and language to which the narration of Exodus was conformed.
As for the poem itself, Tolkien describes it in the following terms: “It is at once an historical poem about events of extreme importance, an account of the preservation of the chosen people and the fulfilment of the promises made to Abraham; and it is an allegory of the soul, or of the Church of militant souls, marching under the hand of God, pursued by the powers of darkness, until it attains to the promised land of Heaven” (33). This dual layering of the story is one reason why it focuses on the titular event as it does with only brief references made to the events leading up to it.
Besides the reference to the plagues, especially the climactic sign against the firstborn, the exordium of this poem refers to how Moses was empowered for miracles (ll. 7–9 of translation)1 by the one who is called Lord of victories (sigora Waldend l. 13 of translation). It also refers to God’s revelation to Moses of how in his kingly wisdom he had fashioned the world and in power and glory had established the earth (l. 69 of translation). This is reminiscent of how the Bible more broadly linked language of God as Creator with God as Lord/King, Judge, and Savior, as I explored in my series here.
Indeed, Tolkien often notes in his commentary how the author of this poem appears to have drawn from other parts of the Bible besides Exodus and Genesis, the stories of which he refers to at certain points. Tolkien often appeals to Numbers for explaining certain facets of the text, such as in how he links ll. 46–47 (of the Old English) to Num 33:4 (39). In other cases, he directs readers to the Psalms, such as linking l. 37 with Ps 77[78]:49 (38) and l. 66 with Ps 74[75]:14–15 (41). In other cases, he notes Ps 73[74]:14–16 (42); Deut 1:32–33 (43);2 Ps 104[105]:34 (58) as shaping texts. One particularly noteworthy example is how he observes various sources contributing to the now mixed-up narration of ll. 85–124:
This narrative adheres to the sequence of Exod. xii.37, xiii.20-2, xiv.1, 2 (and Num. xxxiii. 5-7); but it supplements the bare words of these passages with suggestions drawn from various sources: passages from Deuteronomy and the Psalms, a little easily obtained ‘learning’ about Ethiopians and their skins, and above all a vivid and pictorial imagination, familiar with this island and English traditions. From this last source we get the mists (60); the warlike trappings and vocabulary; the signals for pitching and striking camp (132, 222); the idea of watchfires in the wilderness. (44)
Those last lines are indicative of many elements in this text that come from other sources. Thus, Tolkien makes distinctions throughout of what the author could have drawn from Scripture and what is decidedly not from Scripture. One of the less overt cases he discerns is in how the poet has expanded Moses’s speech on the shores of the sea, which is based on Scripture while going beyond it (58). This is especially clear in cases of geographical description, which show an ancient impression of the region near Egypt from someone far away who had never been there (40, 42). The same applies to the numbering of the Egyptian army (52).
As this text is one shaped to be a heroic poem, it is unsurprising that the warlike imagery has expanded from the Divine Warrior imagery of Exod 15 to encompass the people as well. In the exordium the author speaks of the glorious gift God gave to Moses: “the Lord in His graciousness to him vouchsafed victory in arms against the terror of their foes; in that warfare he overcame many men of high lineage and the inheritance of their enemies” (ll. 16–19 of translation). The people of Israel are thus often described as an army. The confrontation on the shores of the sea are thus presented as two armies arrayed against each other. Israel is described in this fashion:
Then they numbered in the van, their defence against the evil that pursued, twelve battalions of dauntless hearts—their might was set in motion —in each of these were chosen under arms of the power of the people fifty companies of the men of proven valour of that noble race; each company of that renowned host contained ten numbered hundreds of men with spears and trained to war, warriors of fame. A warlike host was that. (ll. 196–204 of translation)
This is despite there being no battle between these armies, as the pillar of cloud and fire, representing “the high service of the Holy Spirit” (l. 96), intervenes. Moreover, Tolkien observes how the pillar of cloud is described with characteristics of a sail that becomes a pavilion (42–43, cf. 58), and how the pillar of fire functions “to give them light, to drive off all dangers (116-17)—that is, the poet conceives of it as a divine watchfire—and also (an original touch) to enforce discipline, a divine sentinel” (44). Moses’s speech also resembles that of a warrior at points, including in the line spoken concerning the Egyptian army pursuing the Israelites, “Ye will not fear battalions already dead and bodies doomed to die—the space is at an end of their swift-passing life” (ll. 231–233 of the translation). Even so, the hope rests on the Divine Warrior, in consonance with the biblical story: “Counsel better do 1 know: that ye should honour the Prince of Glory and pray to the Lord of Life for His comfort, salvation, and victory, as ye take your road. Lo! it is the everlasting God of Abraham, the Master of Creation, that defendeth this host with mighty hand; in Him is courage, power, and valour” (ll. 234–238 of the translation). And so God’s action is described similarly near the end: “Nay, those mighty regiments death swallowed in the sea, destroyed the bearer of tidings who had not the fortune (to escape), and poured to waste the vaunts of men. They had warred with God” (ll. 438–441 of the translation).
Of course, Tolkien is also broadly familiar with Old English Christian tradition that resembles the author’s vocabulary and that, to some extent, informs his language. Besides the accompanying Genesis poem and the aforementioned Beowulf, Tolkien draws on many other sources, including but not limited to Judith, Daniel, Elene (attributed to Cynewulf), the Old English Martyrology, Ælfric’s Grammar, Bede’s Death Song, the Blickling Homilies, and Wulfstan’s Sermo ad Anglos. As an example, Tolkien notes how l. 104 (ll. 102–103 of the translation) refers to the pillar of cloud as Israel’s “guide to life/salvation” (lifes latþeow), which is consistent with how God is described in Elene. As he says, returning to the important framing observation he made, “To fully understand it here it is necessary to remember that Exodus throughout treats the escape of Israel as at once a historical narrative and a symbol of the soul’s journey to the promised land of Salvation” (45).
Tolkien’s knowledge of Scripture and Christian tradition also provides him grounds for speculating about lacunae and about the reasoning of including the text focusing on Noah and Abraham in the middle of this story about the Exodus. As an example of the former, there is a lacuna after l. 141 (l. 124 in the translation), wherein Tolkien notes that some extent of the story of Joseph and the opening of Exodus would have been recounted here. The point of such a pause to go back so far in the story leading up to the Egyptian pursuit seems to be “to stress the double treachery of Egypt to Israel: they broke the original promises of ‘the elder king’, enslaving the Hebrews and not allowing them to depart; then at last, forced by the slaying of the first-born, they allowed the Hebrews to leave, but suddenly revoked the permission by an unexpected attack— just as they came to the barrier of the sea, and could not escape” (47). This is indicated by what comes after the lacuna, wherein the author highlights how the Egyptians forgot the prosperity made possible by Joseph (ll. 125–127 of the translation). Indeed, the poem presents the exodus as an event that should have been “a long-delayed act of gratitude” (48) for what Joseph did.
As an example of the latter, starting in l. 315 of the translation, the focus of the story suddenly shifts to Noah surviving the flood, which is then followed with reference to the Akedah in Gen 22, which also features a brief interlude referring to Solomon building the temple on the same mountain where Isaac was nearly offered up. Tolkien argues (similarly to, but not necessarily dependently on, the earlier scholar J. W. Bright) that this excursus has its ultimate origin in the liturgy:
A series of scriptural passages had been drawn up as prophetiae, special illustrations for the instruction of catechumens about to receive baptism. It was retained in full in the Roman Liturgy of Holy Saturday until the reform of 1953. There were twelve such Prophecies; the content of Prophecies ii and iii are the basis of Exod 362–446, except that the matter of Prophecy ii has been educed. Prophecy i was the account of Creation (Gen. i–ii.3). Prophecy ii covered the history of Noah, from the building of the Ark to the first sacrifice (Gen. v.32–viii.21). Prophecy iii recounted the temptation of Abraham, the release of Isaac, and the Promise (Gen. xxii. 1–19). Prophecy iv contained the drowning of ‘the Egyptians (Exod. xiv.24, 31 and xv.1–3). Prophecies ii to iy thus represent the sequence in our poem: Noah–Abraham and Isaac; the drowning of the Egyptians is being described when the text resumes after а lacuna between 445 and 446. Abbreviation of the matter of Prophecy ii is understandable, because this poet is interested in Noah only as the beginning of a family and a land-title. It is also understandable that the subject of the Passover is not treated in the poem, for this narrative (Exod. xii.1–11) is placed as Prophecy ix. (64)
This influence of structure also may illuminate at least some of what would have been written in the lacuna after the reference to Abraham (69). Concerning the story of Abraham, he likewise claims that the two speeches of the Angel of the Lord—here simply identified as God without the angel qualifier—are merged and the intervening matter is removed because, “The poet was mainly interested in the Promise and the title to the land of Canaan” (67).3
Moreover, Tolkien makes reference to Scripture and tradition to explain why the poem states that Judah is the first tribe to cross through the seabed as on dry land. The poet even says that it was for this reason that “God vouchsafe[d] to him a high reward for his deeds that day; thereafter there came to him the glory of victorious deeds, that of right he should possess the princedom over many kingdoms and pride of place among his kin” (ll. 273–276 of the translation). On the one hand, the poet himself notes that Reuben had destroyed his pre-eminent place by sin, so that he followed after Judah, and this depends on the story of Genesis 35:22 and 49:3–4. Even so, he adds, “yet bold too was he” (ll. 295–296 of the translation). On the other hand, Tolkien also mentions these points, while also indicating that Judah’s prominence was established back in Gen 49:10 as well without it being reiterated here in the scriptural version of the story. He also observes, “The traditional reason for this placing is that Judah was ultimately the most important in the history of Salvation” (62). Thus it was in the OT, thus it was expected in the Second Temple era, and thus it proved with the coming of Jesus in the NT.
Unfortunately, the ending of the poem has been lost. The last preserved lines reference the spoils taken from the Egyptian army who drowned in the sea. Who is to say now what else might have been said? But what is particularly notable comes from before Moses’s final speech, as the narrator reflects on this story and its significance, and how he is reminded of the great day of judgment to come. In Tolkien’s translation:
Even so shall the peoples of men still in scriptures find each solemn word that God announced to him upon the journey with words of truth. If the interpreter of lifegiving knowledge bright-burning in the breast, the ruler of the body’s house, will with spiritual keys unlock the lavish good there stored, then the secrets (of the writing) will be explained, forth shall counsel come. Words of wisdom it embraceth, and earnestly will teach our hearts, that we be not destitute of divine instruction and of the mercies of God; Who to us vouchsafeth yet more, now that learned men tell us of a better and a more lasting life of joy. A fading mirth is this, and cursed with evils, permitted to wanderers, a waiting time of unhappy men. Exiles from home, in mourning they possess this hall of passing guests, lamenting in their hearts; they know the house of torment established under earth, where be fire and snake, an open everlasting tomb of all evil things. Thus now the arch-thieves, old age or untimely death, divide the realm; but a destined hour shall after come, and the greatest power and glory above the earth, a day of wrath upon men’s deeds. The Lord himself in that place of meeting shall judge many a man. Then shall He lead the souls of the just, the spirits blest, into the heavens above, where shall be light and life, yea, abounding joys; His court in bliss shall praise the Lord, the glorious King of Hosts for ever. (ll. 445–468)
What makes references to the poem difficult for my purposes is that the line numbers of the text do not match the line numbers of the translation, which also means that the line numbers in the latter do not match the line numbers Tolkien references in his commentary. As such, I will specify when the line numbers are of the translation and when they are of the Old English.
Here, Tolkien errs in claiming that the text in Exod 13:21 does not explicitly refer to divine agency, while the text in Deuteronomy does. This error is facilitated by him referring to 13:21 when he quotes 13:20.
The poet concludes the section with, “nay, they shall dwell in the land of Canaan between the two seas, as far as the peoples that inhabit Egypt, thine own folk, the free children of one father, most blessed of peoples” (ll. 379–382). Interestingly, in this area of the poem, God is referred to “God of Angels” (ll. 329–330 of the translation), “King of Angels” (l. 372 of the translation), and “Lord of Angels” (l. 478). The significance of this title is nowhere explicitly elaborated, but it obviously conveys God’s exalted status even relative to angels (cf. Heb 1).