Scripture in 1 Peter
(avg. read time: 7–13 mins.)
Of all the General Epistles, the use of Scripture is most prominent in 1 Peter. Today, I am not so much interested in trying to answer why this might be so in comparison to the other Catholic/General Epistles, as that would get us into the weeds of the particular situations not only of 1 Peter, but also of the other six books. Rather, I want to explore the actual character of the use of Scripture in 1 Peter. My survey here will be similar to the one I did for Acts earlier this year. The two major differences are 1) I will not be restricting the scope to fulfillments of Scripture, and 2) for the purposes of this initial exploration, I focus only on the quotes.
As such, this is how I will proceed. First, I identify the text. Second, I examine whether or not the quote of that text agrees with the LXX/OG. Third, I consider whether or not we are dealing with a fulfillment of Scripture. Fourth, if this is a text said to be fulfilled in some way, I identify what is said to fulfill the Scripture. Fifth, I explore whether the use of Scripture in some way resonates with the original context the text is taken from.
1 Peter 1:16
This is an interesting case of a quote because it is possible to link it as a quote to multiple Scriptures. The words introduced with “it is written” are a refrain in Leviticus, specifically in 11:44, 45; 19:2; and 20:7. However, the word order is not a match for the LXX/OG as we currently have it, where in each of these texts the first-person pronoun ἐγώ follows the adjective. That is not a major deviation, and it could still be reflective of an early version of the LXX, or it could be a deviation introduced by a quote from memory, or it is simply a (slightly) divergent translation, whether from Peter’s own translation activity or from someone else. In any case, this is not a use of Scripture that is pointing to a fulfillment of some kind. It is an invocation of Scripture to uphold an ethical directive that is also stated in Scripture itself. As the quote itself is a refrain, the matter of how it resonates with the original context is not as applicable. The sense in which we can say it resonates in the same way is that in all of the respective contexts the theological indicative drives the ethical imperative of holiness by affixing it to the fact of God’s holiness. The shared assumption of the Levitical refrain and the Petrine invocation is that the faithful are to be what they were created to be: bearers of the image and likeness of God.
1 Peter 1:24–25
The quote here is from Isa 40:6–8. It is, once again, not a match for the LXX/OG, although it is closer to it than to any of the other versions of Greek translations available to us today. The first clause of the quote features an unparalleled “as,” it uses “its” in place of “human” in the second clause (so that instead of a synthetic parallel, it is simply resuming the use of “flesh” with an apposite pronoun), and the word is attributed to the anarthrous “Lord” instead of the articular “God.” Again, these are not major divergences (and in the last case, Peter leads into the quote in v. 23 by referring to the word as the word of God), and the potential explanation could once again be any of the aforementioned options. It is difficult to tell whether this is taken as a fulfillment of prophecy or an application of a prophetic word in another capacity as a description of the word of God that has saved them. The latter seems more probable in this context, since there is no element in Peter’s introduction of the quote that necessarily points to a notion of fulfillment. Still, one could argue that the belief in fulfillment may not be far below the surface here in light of how this use resonates with the context of Isa 40. The reference to the word of God in his declarations and promises for Israel is an important theme in Isa 40–55, appearing at structurally significant points first here in 40:8 and then in 45:23; 51:16; and 55:11 (cf. 44:26). While the more direct application of the text here is to support the description of the word of God as “imperishable” (ἄφθαρτος), in both contexts the word is salvific and life-giving, having everlasting consequence as the word itself is everlasting. This is what is proclaimed in the gospel in the present time, that which was promised in the word spoken through Isaiah.
1 Peter 2:6
Peter begins a string of Scripture quotes linked by the keyword “stone” with Isa 28:16. For the third time in as many cases, the quote is not a match for the LXX/OG. A different verb is used for what God does with the stone (though it is used synonymously), the quote does not include the prepositional phrase that appears twice in the LXX version, the word order in the description of the stone is different (though a few manuscripts match the word order in the LXX), but the last clause is a match. The same possible explanations apply here as in the previous two cases. This appears more likely to be a case of pointing to fulfillment of a text, where the present tense verb has the sense of a futuristic present. Jesus Christ himself, who is described earlier as the “living stone” (2:4) is the fulfillment of this description of the stone God lays in Zion. It was his coming itself that made possible the fulfillment of the promise of salvation for those whose faith is in/upon him, but what ultimately brought this promise to fruition is the three-stage narrative of major gospel events. This use does resonate with the original context, but only indirectly. In Isa 28, God speaks of the judgment that is coming to his people and cancelling the covenant they have made with Sheol/death in defiance of the God with whom they are supposed to be in covenant. The stone being laid as the foundation serves to align everything else, hence its connection to the execution of justice and righteousness, meaning the setting aright of the world. It is laid by God in spite of the people’s rejection of him, as is also true of Jesus (2:4) and of his followers (2:5). The description of the “living stone” in 1 Peter also has a double resonance both in light of Jesus being resurrected and in light of the Isaiah text’s reference to nullifying the covenant with Sheol. This is an example of a direct fulfillment of prophecy, though its final confirmation as such, with the extended promise for the one who trusts in this stone, is still in the future both from the perspective of the writer and from our perspective, since the final judgment and final vindication is yet to come.
1 Peter 2:7
The second text in the string is Ps 118:22 (117:22 LXX). This quote is a match for the LXX/OG, with a possible variation of the case of the first word “stone” (nominative in Nestle-Aland and accusative in the LXX), although most manuscripts match the case here as well. As I have noted elsewhere, this appears to be among the more fixed translations of texts quoted in multiple contexts in the NT, with the exception of Acts 4:11. As this text is further supportive of describing Jesus as the rejected (by humans) and chosen (by God) stone for God’s salvific edifice, Peter’s use is again highlighting its fulfillment in Christ, the response to him, and God’s vindication of him. This is another case where the three-stage narrative of the major gospel events is what fulfills the text in question. I have reviewed the uses of this text and the resonances with the context of Ps 118 much more extensively here and here, so I will not be reiterating what I have covered before. Verse 22 in particular serves well as a summary of the dynamics of the larger psalm, and thus its fulfillment entails the fulfillment of the larger narrative dynamics of the psalm through their actualization in Jesus. Indeed, the earliest Christians, following Jesus’s lead, also saw in this particular sentence an encapsulation of the larger gospel story. Whether the fulfillment thereof is best described as typology or perhaps as more of a narrative fulfillment apropos to the eschatological—something like a more specific equivalent of the general references to Scripture noted to this point—is less clear, though I am inclined to think it is the latter.
1 Peter 2:8
The last quote in the string comes from Isa 8:14. This is not a match for the LXX/OG. It is closer to Aquila’s version, but it is not quite a match for that either. Perhaps this is suggestive of Peter rendering his own translation or of using translations more popular in Christian circles, since in five cases thus far he has only followed the LXX once and that was in a case where the translation matching the LXX eventually became more firmly established as the formulaic one in Christian circles. As with the other texts in this string, this appears to be a use of Scripture that points to its fulfillment with reference to Christ, particularly in the major gospel events. In the OT context, it is the Lord who is referred to as this stone for the rebellious Israelites and Judahites, this rejection leads to judgment, and the faithful in their midst, like Isaiah, are called to persevere in faithfulness to the Lord. This resonates with the Petrine context as well (see here another, similar use of a proximate text in Isa 8). This is perhaps best described as a double fulfillment of the text in question, since the dynamics of typology would not work here (there is no amplification in the later fulfillment, as the Lord is the stone in the original context and Jesus is revealed as the stone in the new covenant context).
1 Peter 2:22, 24, 25
I treat these verses together because they quote different portions of Isa 53, specifically vv. 4, 5, 6, and 9. The quote of v. 9 in 2:22 is almost a match for the LXX/OG, except that the first word is rendered as “sin” rather than “lawlessness,” though they obviously work synonymously. The quote of v. 4 in 2:24 only diverges from the LXX in the verb used for his bearing of our sins, which is identical to the verb used in Isa 53:12. The quote of v. 5 at the end of 2:24 features a mere three words that match the LXX, except that the verb is a second-person plural as opposed to a first-person plural, which fits as an adaptation to the context of 1 Peter. The same applies to the three words taken from v. 6 in 2:25. Given how the text is interwoven throughout Peter’s teaching here, and he does not engage in any quotation longer than ten words, it is probable that Peter is working off of memory of a preferred translation, which may have been the LXX, a version thereof, or a text that just happened to be similar. Whatever the case may be, it does not appear here, as with any of the earlier text, that he had a LXX manuscript of Isaiah handy to appeal to regularly. As with other uses of Isa 53 in the NT, Peter’s use here is highlighting its fulfillment in Jesus, primarily in reference to his crucifixion (though 2:23–24 imply that resurrection is not far from the surface). I have noted more extensively in exposition on another passage how the use of this text resonates with the OT context, but such an exploration is not necessary here, as Peter drawing from so many parts of the text shows his awareness of the context and how he interweaves it with the gospel narrative. Also like with the other uses of the text in the NT, we are dealing with a direct fulfillment of prophecy here.
1 Peter 3:10–12
The text here is Ps 34:12–16 (33:13–17 LXX). It is not an exact match for the LXX/OG, but most of the differences could easily enough be accounted for as adaptation to context, such as the same verbs being used but appearing in third-person rather than second-person forms. The same applies to the pronouns which are not included in the Nestle-Aland critical text, but which are included in most manuscripts, as those pronouns are third-person forms. As such, it is unclear in this case if we are to speak of an LXX that Peter adapts in this simple way or of another version of the text, but it appears that it is one or the other of those options, as a thoroughgoing third-person reference does not appear in the MT, Targum, or Vulgate either. This is not a case of fulfillment, but of reiterating exhortation and encouragement from Scripture by application of the same. And it is application that fits the context of the psalm as both texts follow the same dynamics of exhorting those who seek God’s blessing, warning against the consequences of rebelling against God’s will, and encouraging those who seek to live in accordance with God’s will by reminding them of God’s care for them. Peter’s audience is in the same situation and needs to hear the same words.
1 Peter 3:14
The text Peter quotes here is from Isa 8:12. It is not quite a match for the LXX either, as with the earlier use of Isa 8, but the differences are slight in terms of the plural pronoun vs. the singular pronoun and the forms of the negatives. As with the previous text from the psalm, this is a case of applying an exhortation in another, similar context, and so we are not dealing with a matter of fulfillment here per se (though the re-applicability is perhaps connected to the fulfillment, per 1 Pet 1:10–15). Given that Peter has already quoted Isa 8:14 (which was one of the texts pointing to the fulfillment), it is clear that he is aware of the context of this text, as is also shown in his repetition of the imperative to “sanctify the Lord” from Isa 8:13 in reference to Christ at the beginning of 3:15.
1 Peter 4:18
Here, Peter quotes Prov 11:31. With the exception of the omission of the particle μὲν (which is not grammatically necessary anyway), this quote is a match for the LXX/OG. Like the last couple of texts, this is not a citation to point to fulfillment. Rather, it is the simple application of a proverb with a particular view to the final judgment. For most of Proverbs, the textual context is usually irrelevant to the use in other texts, as aphorisms are generally meant to be quoted by themselves. The connections with the context are perhaps incidental, as the other proverbs leading up to this one are about the contrast of the righteous and the wicked.
1 Peter 5:5
The last text Peter quotes is Prov 3:34. What we have already noted about the previous use of Proverbs can be transferred here. It is a match for the LXX/OG. It is not about fulfillment, but it is about the application of a proverb with an eye towards the final judgment, thereby cultivating an eschatological awareness with the application of ancient wisdom. It is also not a case where the context is evoked, and it resonates with the context only in the most general way in that the other proverbs provide contrasts of the righteous/wicked, proud/humble, and so on.