(avg. read time: 9–17 mins.)
Roman Period
Timeline (63 BCE–135 CE)
Scholars differ on where to draw the end of the Second Temple age. The two potential endpoints are the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 70 CE or the end of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135/6 CE. For the sake of having a broader scope, I have chosen 135.
Biblical Texts of This Period
NT
Other Sources for This Period
Josephus, Ant. 14.76–20.268
War (as well as Life and Against Apion)
Philo (historically, see Embassy to Gaius and Against Flaccus)
Psalms 154–155
Wisdom of Solomon
4 Maccabees
Book of Similitudes (1 En. 37–71)
2 Enoch (possibly)
Sibylline Oracles 1, 2, 4, 5 (mostly), 11
Apocryphon of Ezekiel
Apocalypse of Zephaniah
4 Ezra
2 Baruch
3 Baruch
Apocalypse of Abraham
Apocalypse of Elijah (portions)
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (as noted in my Greek reader, it is debatable whether this was originally a Jewish or Christian work)
Testament of Job
Testament of Abraham
Testament of Isaac
Testament of Moses
Testament of Solomon (possibly)
Martyrdom of Isaiah
Joseph and Aseneth (possibly)
Life of Adam and Eve (Greek)/Apocalypse of Moses (Latin)
Pseudo-Philo’s Biblical Antiquities (possibly)
Lives of the Prophets
History of the Rechabites?
Pseudo-Phocylides
Psalms of Solomon
Most of the Dead Sea Scrolls (at least those that are not biblical manuscripts)
Bar Kokhba Letters
Cassius Dio
Eusebius
Major Figures
Julius Caesar
In the wake of the civil war that saw Julius Caesar become the sole ruler of Rome, Antipater and Hyrcanus II established good relations with him to ensure the continuation of their positions.
Antipater, in particular, made himself a useful ally in the Romans’ war with Egypt.
As a result, Caesar made Antipater the procurator of Judea (establishing the Herodian dynasty), confirmed Hyrcanus as high priest (as well as his descendants “in perpetuity”), and gave Hyrcanus permission to reconstruct the city wall that Pompey tore down.
Marc Antony
Herod ingratiated himself to Antony with bribery and Antony made Herod a tetrarch.
Cleopatra VII tried to turn Antony against Herod, presumably because she desired Judea and otherwise had a contentious relationship with Herod.
Instead, Antony and Octavian were influential in Herod becoming king of the former Hasmonean lands.
At the Battle of Actium, which proved to be the decisive battle of his war with Octavian, Antony had Herod’s forces sit out the battle.
Caligula
The Romans had ruled over Palestine for 100 years and operated by a policy of religious tolerance, but Caligula (unsurprisingly) was the first emperor to attempt to change that policy.
He attempted to erect a statue of himself in the temple in Jerusalem.
Philo of Alexandria went to Rome as an ambassador to try to talk Caligula out of what Philo considered to be an intentionally provocative action, but Caligula ignored his petitions against him.
Caligula appointed Petronius as governor of Syria and directed him to invade Judea and set up Caligula’s statue by force.
Petronius, however, listened to the protests of the Jews, and Herod Agrippa I, Caligula’s close friend, ultimately persuaded him to cease his efforts to erect the statue.
Vespasian
Initially the general leading the Romans in the First Jewish-Roman War.
Became emperor through military support and founded the short-lived Flavian dynasty.
When he became emperor, he also became Josephus’s patron, since Josephus had predicted that he would be emperor.
Titus
Son of Vespasian who took command of the First Jewish-Roman War in his father’s absence.
Conquered Jerusalem, but Josephus claimed that the actual destruction of the temple was against his will (War 6.252–266).
Held a triumph in Rome displaying all the spoils and captives of this war.
Herod the Great
Initially appointed over Galilee by his father Antipater when he was a young man.
Exacted hundreds of talents from Galilee as tribute to Cassius after Caesar’s assassination.
The Parthians helped Antigonus (son of Aristobulus II) take over Herod’s land in Palestine from about 40–37 BCE.
Herod fled to Rome after making provisions at Masada and Petra for his family and followers.
While at Rome, Antony and Octavian pushed for him to be made king of the Jews.
With this empowerment, Herod brought an army from Italy to reclaim Palestine, which it took him three years to accomplish.
In this war in particular, Herod showed himself useful to Rome by being a buffer against the dreaded Parthians and a loyal client king.
Once Herod had consolidated his power by killing all possible competitors (Hyrcanus II and Antigonus) and by surviving the intrigue of the last civil war of the Roman Republic (not least because Augustus admired his frankness and loyalty), Herod began a large number of building projects throughout Palestine, including the city of Caesarea, the fortresses of Antonia and Sebaste, fortifications and palaces at Masada, and, most importantly, the refurbishing and remodeling of the temple complex.
o The last project was important to the establishment of his claim to be the divinely favored king of the Jews, as he was essentially functioning as a new Solomon (Josephus, Ant. 15.380–402, 409–425).
At the same time, the later years of Herod’s reign would be defined by paranoia and executions of his family.
o This trend seems to have begun with his execution of his beloved wife Mariamne on suspicion of trying to use a love potion against him.
His paranoia was not entirely unjustified, as he did face attempts at usurpation in his family and rebellions in his country.
On the occasion of his death, Herod arranged to have many Jewish leaders held captive in the hippodrome to be executed so that people would mourn after his death, even if they did not mourn for his death. For more on this aspect of Herod’s reign, see here.
Pontius Pilate
After rebellions against Archelaus, Judea once more became a province of the Roman Empire, rather than a client kingdom as it had been under Herod the Great, and it was ruled by a series of governors. These governors were either procurators (who were more military-oriented administrative figures) or prefects (who were more oriented towards the political side of governmental administration), the most famous of whom was Pontius Pilate.
Besides his actions in the most famous of ancient trials, Pilate was known for his tense relationship with the Judeans and Samaritans, including in his attempt to bring ensigns with Caesar’s image into Jerusalem, his violent quelling of a rebellion against his aqueduct construction, and his slaughter of a Samaritan crowd following a prophet to Gerizim, the last of which caused his removal from office.
Gessius Florus
The last Roman governor/procurator of Judea before the First Jewish-Roman War and the one who precipitated it (Josephus, War 2.277–407).
Allowed a Hellenist to sacrifice birds at the entrance of a synagogue and then imprisoned Jewish petitioners who sought redress (even though he originally accepted eight talents to hear the case).
Plundered seventeen talents from the temple in the name of Caesar and desired more, which led to some Jews mockingly passing around a collection to give him the money he so desperately needed.
He violently responded to any hint of rebellion and crucified some rebels, even among those of upper-class status, which was unexpected at the time.
John the Baptizer
Prophet who operated in the wilderness near the Jordan River by calling people to repent and be baptized.
Herod Antipas of Galilee feared the strength of his influence and ultimately had him executed.
Some attributed Herod’s loss to Aretas IV to this unjust execution.
Jesus of Nazareth
If you are not aware of who this is by now, I am not sure what to tell you now, but there is a lot of stuff on my site about him.
Eleazar ben Hananiah
Son of the last high priest.
Stoked the flames of war when he called on other priests to receive no gift or sacrifice for any foreigner (Josephus, War 2.409–414).
Became a general of the revolutionaries in the war and a leader of one of the Zealot factions that was destroyed by internal conflict.
Simon bar Giora
An Idumean and arguably the most popular revolutionary leader and self-proclaimed liberator, although not accepted by the elites who tried to manage the war.
Rose to prominence after breaking the siege of Jerusalem by Cestius Gallus and routing his army.
Was invited into Jerusalem during the war to drive out another revolutionary leader, John of Gischala, and was acclaimed as the city’s savior and preserver (Josephus, War 4.573–576).
These two leaders ignited a civil war within Jerusalem that resulted in much bloodshed and death in and around the temple complex.
The coins minted by both leaders conveyed salvific intentions; John’s coins bore the inscription “For the freedom of Zion,” while Simon’s coins bore the inscription “For the redemption of Zion.”
Captured during the destruction of Jerusalem and executed at the end of Titus’s triumph in Rome.
Simon bar Kokhba
The last Jewish revolutionary leader in Judea, originally known as Simeon ben Kosiba.
His revolution was instigated by Hadrian naming the city on the site of Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina and erecting a temple to Jupiter on the site where the Jewish temple once stood.
Simon’s sobriquet likely derives from Num 24:17 and seems to indicate a messianic claim.
o According to one tradition, Rabbi Akiba acclaimed him as a messiah.
o Like John and Simon before him, he minted coins declaring the redemption of Israel and the freedom of Israel/Jerusalem accompanied with images of the Holy of Holies and of a star appearing above the temple (alluding to his sobriquet).
Hadrian’s victory over him led to the erection of a monument below the temple of Vespasian in Rome.
Highlights of Historical Context
As Josephus highlights on many occasions, the major Jewish festivals became touchstones for revolution, given that these festivals would temporarily swell the population of Jerusalem and the stories recited each year were significant for maintaining both traditional identity and eschatological hope.
o On one occasion during the time of Coponius (6–9 CE), Samaritans put dead bodies in the cloisters of the temple during the Feast of Unleavened Bread, which led to the complete exclusion of the Samaritans from the temple (Ant. 18.29–30).
o After Felix (52–58 CE) plotted the death of Jonathan the high priest, bandits continually came to the festivals because his death was unavenged (Ant. 20.165, 187, 210, 256).
o Key rebellions and attacks (including one in which John of Gischala slaughtered Eleazar’s faction in the temple complex) occurred during the festivals.
o Josephus also notes signs related to the destruction of Jerusalem occurring at all three of the major festivals (War 6.290, 299–301; cf. Tacitus, Hist. 5.13) and that the high death toll in Jerusalem was due to the pilgrims from the Feast of Unleavened Bread being trapped in the city.
Many revolutionary movements and groups of bandits that would later become part of those movements emerged during this time, even before the turn of the eras.
o Herod fought against bandits in Galilee, faced a rebellion for erecting a golden eagle over the great gate of the temple, and otherwise faced disorders in Judea in his last years.
o Judas (son of Hezekiah, a bandit leader), Simon (former slave of Herod, who put a crown on his head), and Athronges (a shepherd who put a crown on his head) led rebellions immediately after Herod’s death.
o Judas the Galilean and Sadduc the Pharisee led a rebellion that ultimately led to Archelaus’s removal.
o The Samaritan prophet mentioned above (during the time of Pilate) portrayed himself as a great restorer who knew where Moses’s sacred vessels were kept.
o Theudas made claims paralleling himself with Joshua during the time of Fadus (44–46 CE).
o As noted above, the time of Felix saw a significant increase in the activities of the bandits, and it also saw an Egyptian lead a multitude to the Mount of Olives with the promise that he could tear down the wall of Jerusalem.
o During the time of Festus (59–62 CE), an anonymous prophet promised deliverance and freedom to those who followed him into the wilderness.
o At the outset of the war, Menahem (son or grandson of Judas the Galilean) led a movement by claiming to be a warrior king who would rule over a restored Israel.
More than any previous foreign power, Rome’s appointed leaders of Judea took a direct role in deciding on the high priest’s appointment and removal.
o Herod removed three high priests, Archelaus removed two, Gratus removed four (including Annas), Vitellius removed Caiaphas, Agrippa I removed two, his brother Herod removed two, and Agrippa II removed five.
The two Jewish-Roman Wars during this period established a form of Judaism that did not have the temple at its center, which was already anticipated in some ways beforehand.
o For many Jews across the Roman Empire, the pilgrimage festivals were the only times they came to the temple, meaning that the destruction of the temple did not have as deep of an impact on their daily lives as it did on those who lived in Eretz Israel, but the effect was still profound on a symbolic level (as seen in the apocalypses of 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch).
o The Sadducees and the Essenes do not seem to have endured for long after the first war with the destruction of the temple and the temple authorities, as well as the destruction of Qumran.
The revolutionary spirit and the dedication to restoring the temple did not die with the first war, not least because of the inspiration taken from the story of the rebels at Masada (which fell three years after Jerusalem).
Theological Developments
By the end of this period, Judaism became more of a unified faith by comparison to the rest of the era, as the “synod” of Yavneh produced rabbinic Judaism, “a society which tolerates disputes without producing sects. For the first time Jews ‘agreed to disagree’” (Cohen, “Significance,” 29).
As noted above, some sects simply did not survive the first war, but among the Pharisees that did survive, there remained some who were more inclined to the “zealous” approach of the Maccabees and the recent revolutionaries; this philosophy was practically extinguished after the Second Jewish-Roman War.
In the absence of the temple, Judaism as a whole gravitated more towards the synagogue, the Torah, and the teachings of the great rabbis.
Christianity emerged in this environment from Jewish roots identifying itself as Judaism fulfilled, since it followed the Messiah who they proclaimed had already come.
There was a “parting of the ways,” but scholars debate the point(s) at which this parting occurred, in some measure because it happened differently at different times in different places.
Although notions of divine agency had been developing for a long time prior to this period, two developments are noteworthy in this era.
One, divine attributes that had been already been presented as personified were described in more thoroughly personified terms. For Wisdom and Word in particular, it is debatable whether they were considered personified attributes or proper hypostases by sources of this time. The NT goes further still in declaring that God’s Word, God’s Wisdom, God’s Son was incarnate in a particular human being named Jesus of Nazareth.
Two, Jewish authors more frequently described divine agency in relation to eschatological expectations, especially in the persona of a climactic Messiah (or Messiahs).
Hopes for a new David, a prophet like Moses or Elijah, or a consummately holy high priest/priestly king appeared as early as the Prophets and Psalms in the OT, but descriptions of such a figure (or multiple such figures) began reemerging and expanding in earnest in this period. There was no uniform conception of who the climactic Messiah would be or what he would do, but the basic idea that unites all divergent conceptions is that this person would be chosen and anointed by God to be the executor of the divine will.
In the Book of Similitudes, such a figure is heavenly and is described as the Son of Man or Elect One.
The same messianic typology observed from the OT continued and grew more detailed in the text of this period, especially in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs and the Dead Sea Scrolls.
The most detailed expression of hope for a Davidic Messiah appears in Pss. Sol. 17, which is generally understood as having a Judean provenance before the turn of the eras.
Of all the prophetic and messianic movements of this era, Christianity was the only one that had an enduring presence after its leader’s death.
Areas for Further Research
An analysis of messianism that combines history, theology, and anthropology or sociology would make for more of a full-orbed study of the phenomenon of increasing expectation of a climactic Messiah in this period. Among our sources that expressed messianic expectation, what qualities unite them? Are there any historical, sociological, or theological qualities of authors or communities that would incline sources more to one conception of the Messiah(s) or another? What contributions do the insurrectionists and revolutionary movements have to make to analysis of messianism in this era?
More work remains to be done on the significance of the Jewish festivals in Josephus and in the revolutionary movements. What significance did the respective parties assign to these festivals? What accounts for the different ideological functions of these festivals between Josephus and these movements?
Between 70 and 135, Judaism seems to be going through a process of consolidation and unification, but it was not a neat process. In view of the dominant process signified by Yavneh, I would be interested to see how texts such as 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, and some of the Testaments fit into this process. Do they signify a different movement (or movements) still present in Judaism that is divergent from rabbinic Judaism or do they signify more of a different strand of expression for rabbinic Jews? How much of a “big tent” ideology was rabbinic Judaism really? The Mishnah illustrates many disagreements among prominent teachers, but the texts also draw lines among acceptable disagreements and unacceptable ones. Where do some of the later texts of this era fit in those parameters? Where does rabbinic Judaism fit in relation to them?
Bibliography
Cohen, Shaye J. D. From the Maccabees to the Mishnah, 3rd ed. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2014.
_____. “The Significance of Yavneh: Pharisees, Rabbis, and the End of Jewish Sectarianism.” HUCA 55 (1984): 27–53.
Feldman, Louis H. Judaism and Hellenism Reconsidered. JSJSup 107. Leiden: Brill, 2006.
Grabbe, Lester L. Judaism from Cyrus to Hadrian. Vol. 2: The Roman Period. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992.
Schäfer, Peter, ed. The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Second Jewish Revolt Against Rome. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003.
Schürer, Emil. The Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ. Vol. 1. Revised and edited by Geza Vermes, Fergus Millar, and Matthew Black. London: T & T Clark, 2014.
Wright, N. T. Jesus and the Victory of God. Vol. 2 of Christian Origins and the Question of God. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996.
_____. The New Testament and the People of God. Vol. 1 of Christian Origins and the Question of God. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992.